Transcultural Nursing Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Transcultural Nursing Paper - Essay Example Leininger (2001) has stated that "The primary goals of transcultural community - based nursing are to help people of different and similar cultures maintain their health, prevent illnesses or disabilities, and die in culturally congruent and meaningful ways" (p.220).Thus this innovative form of nursing is becoming increasingly important in health care. In light of the above facts it is necessary to promote cultural sensitivity among nurses providing community health care, identify the challenges that are likely to hinder the implementation of a nursing framework that seeks to ensure culturally competent care and to pinpoint the resources available in the community that assist in transcultural nursing. In doing so it would be possible to ascertain practices that are conducive to promoting transcultural nursing and to determine ways in which it might be practiced more effectively. In order to promote cultural sensitivity among nurses it is important to impress upon them the significant role culture plays in individual lives. Cultural beliefs and tenets exert a profound influence on the way people choose to act, live their lives and make their decisions. According to Leininger (2001), "Humans are culturally rooted, acting and making decisions daily that are based on largely unspoken values, beliefs, and cultural community lifeways" (p. 222). Keeping this in mind, nurses are likely to be more sensitive to cultural practices which they might otherwise dismiss as eccentric or ridiculous. In this context, it is possible to promote cultural sensitivity by putting nurses into intimate contact with their own often forgotten cultural roots. This will enable them to identify with their patients who care deeply for their culture. Nurses should be made cognizant of the fact that incorporating transcultural knowledge and skills with their existing scientific practices can go a long way in making things easier and more effective for them when it comes to dealing with patients, particularly the recalcitrant ones. Failure to provide care that is compatible with individual cultures is likely to be met with resistance, hostility, fear and a lack of cooperation. This can impair or even endanger the health of the patient. And since the spirit of community nursing is all about helping in the healing process and putting patients on the road to recovery, nurses should pull out all stops to ensure that the patient's health does not suffer because of their own cultural ignorance. The scope for community - based transcultural nursing is on the rise as immigrants from every corner of the globe throng to the United States of America. Taking care of their health needs entails being aware of their cultural beliefs and expectations. Nurses need to be aware of this fact in order to serve the patient to the best of their abilities, otherwise they might find their existing skills are obsolete and useless in the face of increasing ethnic diversity. Leininger (2001) reports that "Many nurses said they had to almost completely relearn nursing from a different perspective because many of their previous nursing ideas did not fit with specific cultures" (p. 222). Such reports from experienced nurses along with information on multiculturalism and its impact on community health care management may be used to promote cultur

Localize Management in a foreignInvested company in China from the Essay

Localize Management in a foreignInvested company in China from the practical, cultural and strategical perspective - Essay Example This questionnaire is on your views regarding aspects pertaining to the "Localisation of Management", a research topic. The information collected will remain totally anonymous and confidential. Please fill in all the required details. Effort and time spent on completing it is greatly appreciated. .. ____________________________________________________________ 13. Do you think that internal programs for developing managers produce a better grade ofmanagement talent than other measures ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 14. In terms of HR cost, is internal management development a more feasible means toacquire management talent ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 15. Is the ability of a manager to understand the customs, tradition and communication stylesin working with employees important ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 16. Does management in China require the understanding of the blending of Western stylepractices, where applicable, and Chinese principles ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 17. Has converting the staff to think in more progressive terms with regard to performanceand operational style been a big hurdle ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 18. It is the policy of our company to develop managers in the

The Wizard of Oz as a Fairy Tale Essay Example for Free

The Wizard of Oz as a Fairy Tale Essay For hundreds of years, parents have been enthralling children with stories of magic and wishes coming true. Fairy tales are passed from one generation to the next through oral tradition, and, in modern times, books. As various societies develop, fairy tales are changed to fit the needs and morals those societies want to impress upon their children. Thus, the style and content of a fairy tale is directly affected by the social attitudes of a particular society at a particular time. Jack Zipes adopts and assumes the magical folktale is the oral version and the fairytale the literary version of a tale when he describes the rise of â€Å"the fairytale in the Western world as the mass-mediated cultural form of the folktale† (Zipes 15). Fairy tales include common themes, motifs, story lines, and characters that aid in the protagonist’s working towards a common goal. In the first chapter of his book, Swiss scholar Max Luthi identifies fourteen characteristics that are vital to the unique classification of a fairy tales as demarcated from other forms of children’s literture. With the help of these distinctive structural and stylistic features, Frank L. Baum’s novel, â€Å"The Wizard of Oz† can be classified within the boundaries of the fairy tale. â€Å"The Wizard of Oz,† like so many fairy tales, naturally has cultural, social, and political undertones interwoven within the text. Virtually all of Baum’s characters and magical land pertain to specific cultural or socio-political event of the time. Contemporary social issues are unconsciously rolled into the fabric of the story like: the yellow brick road and the silver slippers that both symbolize the influence of the gold and silver debate prominent in Baum’s time. Baum lifts phrases almost directly from Grimm. In â€Å"The Wizard of Oz†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"she wished the girl to remain with her to do the cooking and cleaning† (Baum 27) is similar to the witches request if Gretel in â€Å"Hansel and Gretel† when she says, â€Å"I want you to fetch some water and cook your brother something nice† (Grimm 53). Dorothy also states to the Scarecrow, â€Å"If you come with me Ill ask Oz to do all he can for you†(Baum 22). Which is reminiscent to the donkey’s words in the Grimms’ â€Å"The Bremen Town Musicians† (Grimm 96)†¦The basic plot of this tale is similar to â€Å"The Wizard of Oz† in that a group of helpers accompany a hero and use their specific skills to achieve a quest. Baum does not forget to include several classic airytale motifs: seven league boots are replaced with silver slippers that take the wearer any place his or her hearts desires and the classic object used three times to summon a helper is represented by the golden cap that is used to call upon the winged monkeys three times. The motifs appearance in this story demonstrates how often similar motifs are re-used in an altered states across various types of literature. The witch threatens the heroes with forty bees, forty wolves and forty crows. Though forty may not be the most commo n number used to highlight the unique fairy tale repetition of numbers, this number of course holds meaning. In the Bible there were forty days of flood, forty days of fasting and forty days of wandering. In fact the very nature of â€Å"The Wizard of Oz’s† medium, the novel, increase the differentiation between it and fairy tales. Oz is too long a work for it to be easily recognizable as a fairy tale. Most tales do not describe locations, physical features, or emotional states. Heroes are rarely afraid of foreign creatures, they just kill them or die trying, it is simply a part of their nature as heros. Luthi (Visual Aspect non-deliniation of character p. 25) Within the first few pages Baum informs the reader of the what Dorothy is wearing, a checked gingham dress, and that she â€Å"cries sorrowfully when the wizard wont see her† (Baum 60). The story’s descriptive passages concerning the physical environment mainly relate to the colors that are present (what is visible), especially in the description of the forest †¦ Psychoanalysis has classified and links fairy tales to childhood sexuality. They serve a psychological function by representing to children their subconscious sexual urges and conflicts. Bruno Bettelheim uses his â€Å"The Uses of Enchantment† to discuss the manifestation of these drives in fairytales and how children use such literature to reconcile internal struggles they may be having. The Wizard of Oz provides internal resolution in preparation for something greater—sex. Sex, is of course skirted around rather than confronted head on. For example in chapter eight of the novel, â€Å"The deadly poppy field† sleep is used as a substitute for death. Dorothy never has to experience any real death, but wakes up surrounded by dead wolves she is only mildly frightened for a moment until the woodsman explains their presence euphemistically as being not dead, but â€Å"shaggy. † Oz approaches the deep levels of meaning discussed by Bettelheim and falls into the Freudian romance, like â€Å"Cinderella† who escapes her psychologically unsatisfactory step family to achieve a better life. Dorothy, though she returns to her home in Kansa, manages to move towards maturity and self-realization. As Dorothy realizes the power of the magic slippers and the other characters find what they were looking for but had all along, the reader gets the message that what we need for â€Å"wholeness† is within, not without. Different from the psychological approach of Bettelheim, Max Luthi worked to identify what makes a fairy tale a fairy tale. So although characters may seemingly act without logic, reason, or emotion and one incident may not connect with what occurs immediately before or after it, there is a rationale that permeates every tale. Dorothy is to some degree disconnected from reality. Aunt Em and Uncle Joe are rarely happy because reality has soured them but Dorothy who is not fully integrated with reality is able to go on a quest to discover her own happiness (Luthi: Supernatural #8 p25). Dorothy, as the heroine, is in tune with the underlying fairytale theme of†¦ (Luthi p25, 34 #5, 14). Dorothy seems to be unknowingly blessed. She is mistakenly revered as a sorceress; â€Å"The silver shoes fitted her as if they had been made for her† and she accidentally kills not one, but two wicked witches. The outward sign of her charm is the mark of the good witchs kiss. In some fairytales there is a similar physical indicator, it could be freckles, red headedness, extreme ugliness or a tuft of hair. Separate but related to chance is magic. What distinguishes the fairytale from other folk literature is the prescience of magic. What is fundamental is the existence of magic and the otherworldly. Often there is a stated crossing from the mundane to a magical realm. Once in the magical realm Baum utilizes stock motifs like talking animals, witches, wizards, the Simpleton figure, caps that can summon powerful creatures three times and shows that can travel infinite distances in a few strides. Help is the central motif of the folktale, it propels the narrative and defines the hero. In the folktale the hero would not achieve his objective without help, in particular the help of otherworld beings. And this support is lavished on him. Dorothy never asks for or thinks about magic gifts but when she needs them they are granted. Gifts are given to Dorothy without entreaty and do come into play when needed but, especially in the case of the slippers, she has to work for the privilege. Dorothy shows no extraordinary strength of character yet she is given the silver shoes and fatefully obtains the golden cap. Though one would assume the nature of the heroine determines her success and reflects her good character her quest is often solely for personal gain. Dorothy and her friends want whats best for them and by following their own course they inadvertently rescue other people without intending to do so. This in turn paves the way to their ultimate goal. The happy ending, as Bettelheim reiterates, is what makes the fairy tale stand out as childrens literature. Because fairy tales provide resolution and reassurance children can easily relate and learn from the tales (Bettelheim, 10). Dorothys goal is achieved not in Oz, because Oz is not the right place for her, but instead back at home where she can apply what she has gained to get her â€Å"happily ever after†. â€Å"The Wizard of Oz† corresponds to a large number of fairy tale characteristics, but it undoubtedly does not fit quite perfectly into the exact fairy tale mold. It doesnt fit entirely, partly because its just too big. The nature of its form, the novel, demands a greater level of descriptive information and plot explication, both which lead away from the traditional fairytales.

Impact of the Technological Revolution

Impact of the Technological Revolution 1 INTRODUCTION The role of technological revolution has touched every aspect of peoples lives from shopping to banking. The changes have great impact on services quality and banking activities has enabled the banks to compete in the world markets (Siam 1999-2004, 2006). The banking industry worldwide is witnessing a growing technology driven self-service by way of electronic banking (e-banking) through interacting with customers as a way of increasing productivity. The use of Information Communication Technology (ICT) helps the banks in making strategic decisions by enabling better alignment of business to build better relationship with customers. ICT has enabled banks to provide the following services: Automated Teller Machines (ATM) that have been installed at convenient places for customers to access their accounts anytime. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) that allows different organisations to exchange transactional, financial and business information between their computer systems. Plastic Cards designed to pay for goods and services without necessarily using cash and also to withdraw cash from ATMs located worldwide. Electronic Clearing Service (ECS) is a facility that allows fund transfer from one bank to another electronically. It can be used for bulk or repetitive transfers either by institutions for dividend distribution, salary, etc. and pension, or by individuals for regular payments to utility, loan repayment, etc. Internet Banking as a channel of Electronic Banking (E-banking) allows the customer to do transactions through the banks web page in a flexible mode, i.e. at anytime and anywhere. The flexibility of E-banking is a major benefit to customers because they are able to access the banking services at the comfort of their homes or offices and no more queuing at banks. For the banking sector, E-banking is a big investment on capital and resource though the initial acquisition of relevant infrastructure, standardisation and security are expensive, especially for small banks in developing countries, but not a big problem for big banks in developed countries. These also have to follow the standard legislative and regulatory issues set within a country to protect customers rights, especially the concerning data protection. 1.1 Background of Study The role of internet has become unavoidable to business and society. Businesses and governments worldwide are always working on how to better utilise the internet in order to increase their penetration into the global market (Khan, Mahapatra Sreekumar (2009). Banking sector has seen the use of Information Technology (IT) a better way of reducing the traditional way of investing and moving along the modern technological changes in order to meet up with the global market. The growing changes in technology bring economical and social consequences on our daily life and these changes brought about the Internet. The Internet provides services like, World Wide Web (WWW), Automated Teller Machines (ATM), Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) and Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) which are the core business services of E-banking. The banking sector has embarked on internet banking systems to enable their customers to access their accounts globally and in a flexible mode through their websites. Thi s move to internet banking has seen banks reducing long queues as some customers can serve themselves either through the ATMs or through the website, depending on the type of service they want to perform. Though the banking has embarked on internet banking systems, it has not totally abolished the traditional banking activities. This is to allow those customers who need face to face help to still come to banks to get help on whatever activities or services they need either because they do not trust the web or because they are unable to do not know the technology used and fear to make mistakes. Internet is used world wide for different things, some good and some malicious. This then brings in the issue of trust on the part of both the web site owners and users. Some users still prefer to go and queue in the banks because either they do not trust the web services or are unfamiliar with the systems and therefore feel uncomfortable to use e-banking. Trust should be built in order to encourage more customers to use the web site for their banking service needs. Trust can be categorised into tangible and intangible trust. Tangible trust is an implied trust that can be addressed by the use of digital certificates and SSL protocols and service level granularity. On the other hand intangible trust is something that can be formed or reinforced and is subjective, emotional and has a rational component. Trust can build or destroy the organisations reputation. 1.2 Motivation of Study There has been considerable work carried out in the field of e-banking/e-commerce trust (Smith French 2005); (Khalil 2007), however, there was a gap in their knowledge of cultural gap, especially in developing countries like Botswana. The motivation on this research is as follows: The need to show the importance of localisation of e-banking site as e-banking is a new phenomenon in Botswana. To make further studies on cultures of two ethnic groups within the same country as there have been very little research on this area. This is not the case with developed countries as the studies show that there has been localisation of e-banking to suit their target markets (Singer, Baradwaj and Avery 2007). 1.3 Aim The main aim of this research is to examine how the Tswana and Kalanga ethnic groups of Botswana culturally perceive trust on a B2C e-banking website and to design an e-banking website for each ethnic group. 1.4 Objectives The following objectives will be achieved through this study: A research will be carried out on how cultural background influences the trust and use of e-banking services. To relate the findings of the research in the design process of a web sites that suits the culture for Tswana and Kalanga ethnic groups. 1.5 Research Questions The research study aims to test the following key questions: What is the impact of culture on the contents of e-banking site? How does culture affect online trust in e-banking? Is it necessary to consider culture, trust and usability in designing e-banking website? How does Tswana and Kalanga cultural differences affect e-banking? 1.6 Methodology The research employs both primary and secondary data. Primary data will be collected through a structured survey which will be an online. The online survey will be through email where a link will be sent to the respondents in Botswana and UK. This method is chosen because it is flexible in that the respondents answer the questionnaires at their own free time and in a flexible mode of their computers. The other important thing is that it is cheaper to administer and responses are received more quickly and also that if there are any errors in the questionnaire it is easier to correct the errors. 2 E-SERVICES AND CULTURE WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP 2.1 E-Commerce and E-Banking The development of Information Technology and the advent of internet have enabled traditional business activities to change into Electronic Commerce (E-commerce). E-commerce is a process that allows businesses and customers (B2C) to exchange goods and services electronically anytime anywhere, and it includes banking, stocks and bonds, retail shopping, movie rentals, etc. E-Commerce has opened a global market where businesses can reach their respective customers quickly and cost effectively (Li et al 2009). For trading to be successful in this virtual world, trust must be considered vital not forgetting culture. E-commerce includes inter-organisational marketing process in which the following relationships are observed: B2B (business to business), B2C (business to consumer), and C2C (consumer to consumer). E-banking sometimes called electronic banking or internet banking is a system that allows people to conduct transactions and manage their accounts without necessarily going to the brick and mortar banks. For customers using internet banking to access their account, they need to have personal accounts at the respective banks websites. For e-banking to be effective, banks should invest on IT infrastructure like Hardware, Software, Networking which include connection to the internet. Automated Teller Machines (ATM) and personal computers have reduced the cost in favour of banks on paper work and labour force since customers use self services offered by banks. However, it should be noted that there are still some people who would want to be served by bank officials either because he/she does not know how to operate the banks system, does not trust it or want face-to-face interaction with bank officials. 2.1.1 Benefits of E-Banking Electronic banking or online banking is the most popular means of e-commerce for millions people worldwide. Most banking products and services are now offered over the Internet. Banks have invested in robust information technology practices and secure-transaction technologies that have made electronic banking trustworthy. This has also created some benefits on e-banking as follows: Convenience and flexibility as the customer is able to pay bills, shop and transfer money from anywhere at any time suitable to the customer as long as the customer has access to a personal computer and internet connectivity. There is no strictness of business hours as the services are available 24 hours every day unlike in the traditional brick and mortar where a customer has to observe working hours. Customers are able to manage their customers as they are able to access their accounts and therefore can cross check their accounts anytime. To the customer the only cost associated with e-banking is the cost of the time spent online which is usually charged by the internet provider. There is also time and money saving as customers do not have to travel distances to their respective banks unless on crucial issues. 2.1.2 Limitations of E-Banking As well as electronic banking have advantages there are some limitations too. Below are some limitations on electronic banking. Some bank websites have too much information that confuses the customers and the customer may feel it is a waste of time as he/she does not get the information that he/she wants and may never bother to visit the website again. The financial needs of the customer may not be quickly be predicted and therefore will take some time to be solved, which is an inconvenience to the customer. Hacking and identity theft are on the rise this calls for a certain amount of trust placed on the banks by electronic banking customers. The system should be able to stand against hacking. There is no Face-to-face interaction in electronic banking and some customers still need this type of service that are observed in a traditional bank to quickly solve or answer customers queries. In case of internet failure the customer is unable to withdraw money from his/her account and unable to even use the ATMs or credit/debit cards. Some banks charge for ATM usage by non-customers, therefore if a customer stays where there is not ATM for his/her bank, then he/she will be charged to using the facility of another bank. 2.1.3 Security and Trust Security issues are a major concern for everybody using internet whether for banking purposes or not. There is an increase of security risks in the banking sector as their systems are exposed to risky environments. Confidentiality, integrity, privacy and availability are the core areas of security that banks and financial institutions must address (Jide Awe 2006). This calls for banks and financial services authority to plan ahead in monitoring and managing the security threats. The security threats are classified in three categories; breaches with serious threats (e.g. fraud), breaches caused by casual hackers (e.g. web sites defacement or services denial (e.g. causes of web sites to crash) and flaws in systems design (e.g. genuine users able to see or use another users accounts). These threats cause serious financial, legal and reputational implications to the banks affected. Banks and financial institutions need to put in place security measures to respond to these threats. The security measures need constant update in order for them to cope with the ever increasing and advanced threats. The banks should also have sufficient staff who have security expertise in order to keep on checking and updating the banks systems. These threats bring in customers lack of trust on the electronic banking that is why some customers prefer to queue at banks to get services that they would have otherwise done through the internet. Trust should be built in order to encourage more customers to use the web site for their banking service needs. McKnight, Cummings and Chervany (1998) define trust as an individuals beliefs about the extent to which a target is likely to behave in a way that is benevolent, competent, honest, or predictable in a situation. Trust can be categorised into tangible and intangible trust. Tangible trust is an implied trust that can be addressed by the use of digital certificates and SSL protocols and service level granularity. On the other hand intangible trust is something that can be formed or reinforced and is subjective, emotional and has a rational component. Trust can build or destroy the organisations reputation. Trust is very important and should be the critical area for each bank to consider because if customers do not trust a bank then the bank will be out of business. Trust on e-banking is crucial because it can make the banks to lose money and popularity if hackers are able to access customers accounts. It can be ensured by putting stringent measures on the banks systems and including in its website the symbols/signs and text that will make the customer aware of the security of the website. Some researchers believe that in electronic cyber consumer trust is more important than in traditional transactions (Kim, Ferrin and Rao 2007). There are signs and symbols that are used in the website that indicate to the customer that the site is trustworthy. These trustworthy signs may be explicit and some implicit (French, Liu Springett 2007). 2.1.4 Cultural Models The world is comprised of people with different cultural backgrounds which justifies their behavioural variation. This variation usually shows the different cultures and values of these people. Culture is something that identifies and differentiates one person from another and it is something that is not inherited or from genes but it is learned. The environment in which a person grows usually determines the persons culture because he/she learns the language, the norms and values of the people with which he/she lives. Hofstede (1991) defines culture as the collection of human mind that distinguish the members of one human group or category of people from those of others. The manifestation of cultural differences is formed through a combination of four characteristics: symbols, heroes, rituals, and values. Rituals are sacred things that must be carried out within a cultural environment. Values are cultural things that are mentally stored as one grows up within the cultural environment. Symbols are things like language, pictures/objects and gestures that depicts meaning understood within the same cultural group. Heroes are people respected and considered to be role models within a cultural environment, however, this changes as the child graduate into adulthood. Cultural differences across the world vary according to ethnic groups and also across geographic boundaries. 2.1.5 Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions Hofstede (1984, 1991) identified the following five cultural dimensions which could be used to compare and measure cultural differences. 2.1.5.1 Power Distance Index Power is not distributed equally among the society. This is indicated by some people having more power than others, eg. some people are born kings, chiefs already having that status even at the very early age as toddlers. These people will be respected from that very early age even in way they are addressed. However, the power distance can be measured differently depending on the difference in society. There are those that are termed as large power distance culture where the subordinates do as told and the superior gives instructions and is the only one who decides what is good for the society or organisation. On the other hand there are those that are termed low power distance where there is consultation between the superior and the subordinates. In this category the superior respects the subordinates and entrust them with important assignments believing that they will be successfully completed. 2.1.5.2 Individualism versus Collectivism In individualism can be classified as nuclear family where each individual act independently, making his/her own choices and decisions. As a member of the nuclear family, the individual has to take care of himself/herself and his/her immediate families. On the other hand collectivism can be classified as patrilineal or matrilineal where people, after being integrated into the society at birth, are looked after by extended families. 2.1.5.3 Masculine versus Femininity Division of roles depend on gender, Men must provide for their families and female must take care of the children and the whole family. The assertiveness of men creates dominance over female on economic life within the family irrespective of whether it is an extended or nuclear family. However, in developed countries there are some variations on gender role pattern that enable females to enrol in courses that were initially designed for men and therefore do jobs that were done by men. In some underdeveloped or developing countries where the gender role pattern still exists, women are barred from doing jobs that are considered to be designed for men and women are also barred from enrolling on courses that are designed for men. This gender role pattern is still strictly followed in some underdeveloped countries where men are said to be head of families and thus gives the men all authority over everything that goes on in the family. Woman in such families do not have any say, they are t old what to do, how and when by their husbands and they are not supposed to question the instructions from men. 2.1.5.4 Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) Most people fear uncertain situations because they cannot predict what might happen in the near future. To minimise this, organisations or societies engage strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and religious and cultural beliefs to protect their organisations or societies. However, avoidance of uncertainty varies according to cultural differences. In high power distance culture, the boss is the only one to make decisions and the subordinates must strictly follow the bosss instructions. Subordinates expect the supervisors to tell them what to do because they regard each other as unequal. In organisations, this is also indicated by the wide salary gap whereas in societies it is indicated by the prestige given to superiors (e.g. chiefs) by their subordinates (e.g. tribes). In low power distance culture there is respect by supervisors over their subordinates. The supervisors entrust subordinates with important assignments trusting that the work will be done efficiently and if there is something wrong the supervisor will not put the blame on the subordinates, but rather takes it upon himself. The society believes people are equal irrespective of their education, religion or wealth. There is more democracy as subordinates views are sought and taken into consideration when making decisions. 2.1.5.5 Long-Term Orientation versus Short-Term Orientation The long-term orientation versus short-term orientation is a model which came a after Hofstede was convinced by Michael Bond who called this dimension the Confucian dynamism. Values of long-term orientation are more oriented towards future e.g. perseverance and thrift while on the short-term the values are more oriented towards past and present and therefore more static e.g. respect for tradition and reciprocation of greetings, favours and gifts, personal steadiness and stability. 2.1.6 Trompenaars, Hall and Other Cultural Models There are several cultural models most of which overlap into Hofstedes models (Kluckhohn; Trompenaars 2000). Trompenaars developed the below models: 2.1.6.1 Universalism versus Particularism This can be viewed as authority versus consultation. In authority the one who has authority gives instructions and makes decision without the involvement of others whereas in consultation other peoples views are taken into consideration when making decisions. 2.1.6.2 Individualism versus Communicationism Where there is balance between individuals and groups needs. 2.1.6.3 Specific versus Diffuse Relationships Here the business is done on an abstract relationship (contract) or on good personal relationship in order to bring in liking and trust. 2.1.6.4 Neutral versus Affective Communication Styles In this dimension people hide and hold on to their emotions or they show them up in which case they expect some emotional response. 2.1.6.5 Time Orientation Monochromic culture focuses more on performing the task promptly meeting the original plan and prefers to do one task at a time. Polychronic culture tends to e multi-tasking, doing different things at the same time, and emphasis is more on relationship than on tasks. 2.1.7 Halls Cultural Models Hall (1976, 1983) developed the three cultural dimensions in which he describe how people behave. Following are his Cultural Models: 2.1.7.1 Context High Context People are helped by many contextual elements to understand the rules and it is a problem for those who do not understand unwritten rules. Low Context More explanation on rules is done as things are not taken for granted and therefore there is less chance of misunderstanding. 2.1.7.2 Time Monochronic Time is where one thing is done at a time and the concern is achieving the task on schedule. Polychronic Time is where several things are done at the same time (multi-tasking) and here the concern is on relationship and not schedule. 2.1.7.3 Space High Territorial Some people have greater concern for ownership and try to mark their territorial boundaries whether at home, parking space and even in shared offices. Low Territorial People here are not much concerned with ownership of space and for them it less important Hofstede, Trompenaars and Hall did extensive research that enabled them to conduct rankings on countries cultural differences. Hofstede conducted his research on 50 countries whilst Trompenaars conducted his on between 19 and 52 countries though with fewer rankings. Although it does not clearly show whether Hall did any rankings but he did a comparison of cultural dimensions among the French, Americans and Germans. 2.1.8 Tswana Culture Households in the Tswana polities usually take the form of three residential sites: one household in the village, one at agricultural holdings outside the village but not very far from the village (where ploughing takes place) and the last a cattlepost (with kraals for keeping livestock owned by the family). †¢ Power Distance: Tswana tribes greatly respect their elders which is shown especially when the younger ones greet the elders. In Botswana greetings are used to judge somebodys behaviour and greetings are conducted in a certain manner. When greeting an elder, a younger has to stop a bit to show respect and if the younger person is a male wearing a hat, he has to take it off to show respect to the elder. A man also has to take off his hat when getting inside the house as a custom unless the man is a widower. Each Tswana tribe or ethnic group has a Chief (Kgosi) who is helped by paternal uncles and Headmen. The paternal uncles are by virtue of close relationship to the Chief advisors as they are considered to have the royal blood. Kgosis traditional court is called Kgotla, and it is the main customary court within the village where disputes or misunderstandings that could not be solved by Headmen are solved. The Chiefs Kgotla also acts as the Traditional Court of Appeal within th e village, where people who are not satisfied with the Headmens rulings can appeal. Chieftainship is inherited, so for a person to be a chief he/she has to be born from the royal family and not somebody chosen. Most of the Tswana people are Christians as Christianity was brought in Botswana as early as 1845 by a Scotsman named Dr. David Livingstone. The first Christian to be baptized by Dr Livingstone was Chief Sechele of the Bakwena and this was a good sign towards improvement in peoples way of living. For a chief to be a Christian it was easier to convince other chiefs and the people to become Christians. Christianity also contributed a lot to Tswana culture as it reduced the bureaucratic principles where only one person would make decisions for the whole family or tribe and nowadays consultation is the norm. †¢ Individualism versus Collectivism: Collectivism is the norm with the Tswana Culture where somebody has to take care of his/her family and also the extended family like uncles, grandparents, aunts, nephews and nieces. In the olden days class differentiation was very low and mostly invisible because traditionally those who had more cattle would help those who had none by distributing the cattle to those households for management. This helped the families because they would use the cattle to plough with and user their milk to feed their own family. This management of cattle also resulted in people being paid by one cow every six months or every year depending on the agreement between the owner of the cattle and the person taking care of the cattle. However, some people do not want to take the responsibilities of extended families and that is why there are organisations like SOS and other orphanage organisations to take care of orphans and also the government is giving out food r ations on monthly basis to orphans, elderly people and families considered to be very poor. †¢ Masculinity versus femininity: In the traditional Tswana setup masculinity is the norm, roles are distinguished according to gender, and this is clearly visible in traditional ceremonies where men are the only ones to sit on chairs and women sit on mats and also that in meetings men are to speak first and women are to confirm what the men have said. Men were considered heads of the families and therefore their decisions were final and unquestionable. But since the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action at the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995 (United Nations World-Wide Web page 1995) and the government of Botswanas emphasis on equality, some jobs/tasks which were considered to be for males only are now considered unisex. At present there are some women chiefs in some Tswana tribes which traditionally the chieftainship was considered to be for men, even if the chief would die only having daughters that meant chieftainship would be given to one of the partenal uncle s or his elder son. By this the chiefs family would have lost the chieftainship inheritance. †¢ Uncertainty avoidance: Tswana ethnic group used to believe in ancestors and most of them liked to consult traditional healers for different illnesses and protection against evil spirits. Since the introduction of Christian religion through Dr David Livingstone in 1843, most people no longer believe in traditional healing. The staple food for Tswana is sorghum or corn meal porridge which is made thinner for breakfast and thicker for lunch and supper eaten with some relish which may be chicken, meat from goat, sheep or cattle (sometimes pounded), caterpillar known as phane and various wild game and vegetables. But these cultures of food have now shifted a bit but are more common in ceremonial occasions like weddings and funerals and also westernised foods are prepared like coleslaw, pumpkin, squash, rice, etc. †¢ Long-term versus Short: Tswana culture used to allow children to go to school only to learn how to read and write. Most female teenagers were taken out of school to go and be married to elderly men as an arranged marriage between the parents without the agreement of the female teenager, but now people find their own partners and marry when they feel they are ready and not pushed. 2.1.9 Kalanga Culture Kalanga tribe is found in the north eastern part of Botswana and some in Zimbabwe, only separated by the border. The Kalanga tribe in Botswana, who are still withholding their culture, are mostly found in different villages within the north east side of Botswana. The Kalanga Language was taught in primary schools until 1972, six years after Botswana gained its independence from the British, and now the Kalanga tribe believe that since the discontinued teaching of Kalanga Language in primary schools their culture has been jeopardised. The staple food for Kalanga is sorghum or corn meal porridge which is always made thick and taken with relish. The relish is comprised of meat (sometimes pounded), caterpillar known as phane and various wild game and vegetables. But these cultures of food have now shifted a bit but are more common in ceremonial occasions like weddings and funerals and also westernised foods are prepared like coleslaw, pumpkin, rice, squash etc. Power Distance: The Kalanga, like the Tswana, have chiefs who look after the tribe. Their ancestral belief is very high even if they still do practise Christianity. This is shown in their annual Dombosaha ceremonies and also in their prayers for rain. Their prayers are conducted at the hill call Domboshaba, where they believe their ancestral god Ngwale is. The word Domboshaba means Red Hill Dombo means hill and shaba means red. Bakalaka treat Domboshaba like the Islam treat Mecca, this means Domboshaba is a holly place for Bakalaka. They believe the ancestors are always watching over the living and if the ancestors become upset they are able to send sickness to the living as a sign of displeasure. According to the Kalanga tribe the spirits displeasure is revealed through illnesses, droughts and other calamities and can be appeased only through worship to Ngwale. Individualism versus Collectivism: The Kalanga tribes are still strictly using collectivism as they look after each other or their extended families. Individualism is avoided as their belief is no man is an island. They emphasise on community care which shows collectivism dimension. Uncertainty avoidance: The Kalanga tribes believe in worshipping their ancestral god called Ngwale and they also believe in pleasing Ngwale to avoid punishment. Their belief is that Ngwale is always looking at them and if he is not happy with them, he will punish them by bringing incurable diseases, droughts and other disasters. Due to these beliefs the Kalanga tribe do not want to anger Ngwale in order to avoid the situations of calamities. They also believe in consulting Ngwale go guide them or help them solve some problems for which they have no control of like when there is not enough rain durin Impact of the Technological Revolution Impact of the Technological Revolution 1 INTRODUCTION The role of technological revolution has touched every aspect of peoples lives from shopping to banking. The changes have great impact on services quality and banking activities has enabled the banks to compete in the world markets (Siam 1999-2004, 2006). The banking industry worldwide is witnessing a growing technology driven self-service by way of electronic banking (e-banking) through interacting with customers as a way of increasing productivity. The use of Information Communication Technology (ICT) helps the banks in making strategic decisions by enabling better alignment of business to build better relationship with customers. ICT has enabled banks to provide the following services: Automated Teller Machines (ATM) that have been installed at convenient places for customers to access their accounts anytime. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) that allows different organisations to exchange transactional, financial and business information between their computer systems. Plastic Cards designed to pay for goods and services without necessarily using cash and also to withdraw cash from ATMs located worldwide. Electronic Clearing Service (ECS) is a facility that allows fund transfer from one bank to another electronically. It can be used for bulk or repetitive transfers either by institutions for dividend distribution, salary, etc. and pension, or by individuals for regular payments to utility, loan repayment, etc. Internet Banking as a channel of Electronic Banking (E-banking) allows the customer to do transactions through the banks web page in a flexible mode, i.e. at anytime and anywhere. The flexibility of E-banking is a major benefit to customers because they are able to access the banking services at the comfort of their homes or offices and no more queuing at banks. For the banking sector, E-banking is a big investment on capital and resource though the initial acquisition of relevant infrastructure, standardisation and security are expensive, especially for small banks in developing countries, but not a big problem for big banks in developed countries. These also have to follow the standard legislative and regulatory issues set within a country to protect customers rights, especially the concerning data protection. 1.1 Background of Study The role of internet has become unavoidable to business and society. Businesses and governments worldwide are always working on how to better utilise the internet in order to increase their penetration into the global market (Khan, Mahapatra Sreekumar (2009). Banking sector has seen the use of Information Technology (IT) a better way of reducing the traditional way of investing and moving along the modern technological changes in order to meet up with the global market. The growing changes in technology bring economical and social consequences on our daily life and these changes brought about the Internet. The Internet provides services like, World Wide Web (WWW), Automated Teller Machines (ATM), Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) and Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) which are the core business services of E-banking. The banking sector has embarked on internet banking systems to enable their customers to access their accounts globally and in a flexible mode through their websites. Thi s move to internet banking has seen banks reducing long queues as some customers can serve themselves either through the ATMs or through the website, depending on the type of service they want to perform. Though the banking has embarked on internet banking systems, it has not totally abolished the traditional banking activities. This is to allow those customers who need face to face help to still come to banks to get help on whatever activities or services they need either because they do not trust the web or because they are unable to do not know the technology used and fear to make mistakes. Internet is used world wide for different things, some good and some malicious. This then brings in the issue of trust on the part of both the web site owners and users. Some users still prefer to go and queue in the banks because either they do not trust the web services or are unfamiliar with the systems and therefore feel uncomfortable to use e-banking. Trust should be built in order to encourage more customers to use the web site for their banking service needs. Trust can be categorised into tangible and intangible trust. Tangible trust is an implied trust that can be addressed by the use of digital certificates and SSL protocols and service level granularity. On the other hand intangible trust is something that can be formed or reinforced and is subjective, emotional and has a rational component. Trust can build or destroy the organisations reputation. 1.2 Motivation of Study There has been considerable work carried out in the field of e-banking/e-commerce trust (Smith French 2005); (Khalil 2007), however, there was a gap in their knowledge of cultural gap, especially in developing countries like Botswana. The motivation on this research is as follows: The need to show the importance of localisation of e-banking site as e-banking is a new phenomenon in Botswana. To make further studies on cultures of two ethnic groups within the same country as there have been very little research on this area. This is not the case with developed countries as the studies show that there has been localisation of e-banking to suit their target markets (Singer, Baradwaj and Avery 2007). 1.3 Aim The main aim of this research is to examine how the Tswana and Kalanga ethnic groups of Botswana culturally perceive trust on a B2C e-banking website and to design an e-banking website for each ethnic group. 1.4 Objectives The following objectives will be achieved through this study: A research will be carried out on how cultural background influences the trust and use of e-banking services. To relate the findings of the research in the design process of a web sites that suits the culture for Tswana and Kalanga ethnic groups. 1.5 Research Questions The research study aims to test the following key questions: What is the impact of culture on the contents of e-banking site? How does culture affect online trust in e-banking? Is it necessary to consider culture, trust and usability in designing e-banking website? How does Tswana and Kalanga cultural differences affect e-banking? 1.6 Methodology The research employs both primary and secondary data. Primary data will be collected through a structured survey which will be an online. The online survey will be through email where a link will be sent to the respondents in Botswana and UK. This method is chosen because it is flexible in that the respondents answer the questionnaires at their own free time and in a flexible mode of their computers. The other important thing is that it is cheaper to administer and responses are received more quickly and also that if there are any errors in the questionnaire it is easier to correct the errors. 2 E-SERVICES AND CULTURE WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP 2.1 E-Commerce and E-Banking The development of Information Technology and the advent of internet have enabled traditional business activities to change into Electronic Commerce (E-commerce). E-commerce is a process that allows businesses and customers (B2C) to exchange goods and services electronically anytime anywhere, and it includes banking, stocks and bonds, retail shopping, movie rentals, etc. E-Commerce has opened a global market where businesses can reach their respective customers quickly and cost effectively (Li et al 2009). For trading to be successful in this virtual world, trust must be considered vital not forgetting culture. E-commerce includes inter-organisational marketing process in which the following relationships are observed: B2B (business to business), B2C (business to consumer), and C2C (consumer to consumer). E-banking sometimes called electronic banking or internet banking is a system that allows people to conduct transactions and manage their accounts without necessarily going to the brick and mortar banks. For customers using internet banking to access their account, they need to have personal accounts at the respective banks websites. For e-banking to be effective, banks should invest on IT infrastructure like Hardware, Software, Networking which include connection to the internet. Automated Teller Machines (ATM) and personal computers have reduced the cost in favour of banks on paper work and labour force since customers use self services offered by banks. However, it should be noted that there are still some people who would want to be served by bank officials either because he/she does not know how to operate the banks system, does not trust it or want face-to-face interaction with bank officials. 2.1.1 Benefits of E-Banking Electronic banking or online banking is the most popular means of e-commerce for millions people worldwide. Most banking products and services are now offered over the Internet. Banks have invested in robust information technology practices and secure-transaction technologies that have made electronic banking trustworthy. This has also created some benefits on e-banking as follows: Convenience and flexibility as the customer is able to pay bills, shop and transfer money from anywhere at any time suitable to the customer as long as the customer has access to a personal computer and internet connectivity. There is no strictness of business hours as the services are available 24 hours every day unlike in the traditional brick and mortar where a customer has to observe working hours. Customers are able to manage their customers as they are able to access their accounts and therefore can cross check their accounts anytime. To the customer the only cost associated with e-banking is the cost of the time spent online which is usually charged by the internet provider. There is also time and money saving as customers do not have to travel distances to their respective banks unless on crucial issues. 2.1.2 Limitations of E-Banking As well as electronic banking have advantages there are some limitations too. Below are some limitations on electronic banking. Some bank websites have too much information that confuses the customers and the customer may feel it is a waste of time as he/she does not get the information that he/she wants and may never bother to visit the website again. The financial needs of the customer may not be quickly be predicted and therefore will take some time to be solved, which is an inconvenience to the customer. Hacking and identity theft are on the rise this calls for a certain amount of trust placed on the banks by electronic banking customers. The system should be able to stand against hacking. There is no Face-to-face interaction in electronic banking and some customers still need this type of service that are observed in a traditional bank to quickly solve or answer customers queries. In case of internet failure the customer is unable to withdraw money from his/her account and unable to even use the ATMs or credit/debit cards. Some banks charge for ATM usage by non-customers, therefore if a customer stays where there is not ATM for his/her bank, then he/she will be charged to using the facility of another bank. 2.1.3 Security and Trust Security issues are a major concern for everybody using internet whether for banking purposes or not. There is an increase of security risks in the banking sector as their systems are exposed to risky environments. Confidentiality, integrity, privacy and availability are the core areas of security that banks and financial institutions must address (Jide Awe 2006). This calls for banks and financial services authority to plan ahead in monitoring and managing the security threats. The security threats are classified in three categories; breaches with serious threats (e.g. fraud), breaches caused by casual hackers (e.g. web sites defacement or services denial (e.g. causes of web sites to crash) and flaws in systems design (e.g. genuine users able to see or use another users accounts). These threats cause serious financial, legal and reputational implications to the banks affected. Banks and financial institutions need to put in place security measures to respond to these threats. The security measures need constant update in order for them to cope with the ever increasing and advanced threats. The banks should also have sufficient staff who have security expertise in order to keep on checking and updating the banks systems. These threats bring in customers lack of trust on the electronic banking that is why some customers prefer to queue at banks to get services that they would have otherwise done through the internet. Trust should be built in order to encourage more customers to use the web site for their banking service needs. McKnight, Cummings and Chervany (1998) define trust as an individuals beliefs about the extent to which a target is likely to behave in a way that is benevolent, competent, honest, or predictable in a situation. Trust can be categorised into tangible and intangible trust. Tangible trust is an implied trust that can be addressed by the use of digital certificates and SSL protocols and service level granularity. On the other hand intangible trust is something that can be formed or reinforced and is subjective, emotional and has a rational component. Trust can build or destroy the organisations reputation. Trust is very important and should be the critical area for each bank to consider because if customers do not trust a bank then the bank will be out of business. Trust on e-banking is crucial because it can make the banks to lose money and popularity if hackers are able to access customers accounts. It can be ensured by putting stringent measures on the banks systems and including in its website the symbols/signs and text that will make the customer aware of the security of the website. Some researchers believe that in electronic cyber consumer trust is more important than in traditional transactions (Kim, Ferrin and Rao 2007). There are signs and symbols that are used in the website that indicate to the customer that the site is trustworthy. These trustworthy signs may be explicit and some implicit (French, Liu Springett 2007). 2.1.4 Cultural Models The world is comprised of people with different cultural backgrounds which justifies their behavioural variation. This variation usually shows the different cultures and values of these people. Culture is something that identifies and differentiates one person from another and it is something that is not inherited or from genes but it is learned. The environment in which a person grows usually determines the persons culture because he/she learns the language, the norms and values of the people with which he/she lives. Hofstede (1991) defines culture as the collection of human mind that distinguish the members of one human group or category of people from those of others. The manifestation of cultural differences is formed through a combination of four characteristics: symbols, heroes, rituals, and values. Rituals are sacred things that must be carried out within a cultural environment. Values are cultural things that are mentally stored as one grows up within the cultural environment. Symbols are things like language, pictures/objects and gestures that depicts meaning understood within the same cultural group. Heroes are people respected and considered to be role models within a cultural environment, however, this changes as the child graduate into adulthood. Cultural differences across the world vary according to ethnic groups and also across geographic boundaries. 2.1.5 Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions Hofstede (1984, 1991) identified the following five cultural dimensions which could be used to compare and measure cultural differences. 2.1.5.1 Power Distance Index Power is not distributed equally among the society. This is indicated by some people having more power than others, eg. some people are born kings, chiefs already having that status even at the very early age as toddlers. These people will be respected from that very early age even in way they are addressed. However, the power distance can be measured differently depending on the difference in society. There are those that are termed as large power distance culture where the subordinates do as told and the superior gives instructions and is the only one who decides what is good for the society or organisation. On the other hand there are those that are termed low power distance where there is consultation between the superior and the subordinates. In this category the superior respects the subordinates and entrust them with important assignments believing that they will be successfully completed. 2.1.5.2 Individualism versus Collectivism In individualism can be classified as nuclear family where each individual act independently, making his/her own choices and decisions. As a member of the nuclear family, the individual has to take care of himself/herself and his/her immediate families. On the other hand collectivism can be classified as patrilineal or matrilineal where people, after being integrated into the society at birth, are looked after by extended families. 2.1.5.3 Masculine versus Femininity Division of roles depend on gender, Men must provide for their families and female must take care of the children and the whole family. The assertiveness of men creates dominance over female on economic life within the family irrespective of whether it is an extended or nuclear family. However, in developed countries there are some variations on gender role pattern that enable females to enrol in courses that were initially designed for men and therefore do jobs that were done by men. In some underdeveloped or developing countries where the gender role pattern still exists, women are barred from doing jobs that are considered to be designed for men and women are also barred from enrolling on courses that are designed for men. This gender role pattern is still strictly followed in some underdeveloped countries where men are said to be head of families and thus gives the men all authority over everything that goes on in the family. Woman in such families do not have any say, they are t old what to do, how and when by their husbands and they are not supposed to question the instructions from men. 2.1.5.4 Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) Most people fear uncertain situations because they cannot predict what might happen in the near future. To minimise this, organisations or societies engage strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and religious and cultural beliefs to protect their organisations or societies. However, avoidance of uncertainty varies according to cultural differences. In high power distance culture, the boss is the only one to make decisions and the subordinates must strictly follow the bosss instructions. Subordinates expect the supervisors to tell them what to do because they regard each other as unequal. In organisations, this is also indicated by the wide salary gap whereas in societies it is indicated by the prestige given to superiors (e.g. chiefs) by their subordinates (e.g. tribes). In low power distance culture there is respect by supervisors over their subordinates. The supervisors entrust subordinates with important assignments trusting that the work will be done efficiently and if there is something wrong the supervisor will not put the blame on the subordinates, but rather takes it upon himself. The society believes people are equal irrespective of their education, religion or wealth. There is more democracy as subordinates views are sought and taken into consideration when making decisions. 2.1.5.5 Long-Term Orientation versus Short-Term Orientation The long-term orientation versus short-term orientation is a model which came a after Hofstede was convinced by Michael Bond who called this dimension the Confucian dynamism. Values of long-term orientation are more oriented towards future e.g. perseverance and thrift while on the short-term the values are more oriented towards past and present and therefore more static e.g. respect for tradition and reciprocation of greetings, favours and gifts, personal steadiness and stability. 2.1.6 Trompenaars, Hall and Other Cultural Models There are several cultural models most of which overlap into Hofstedes models (Kluckhohn; Trompenaars 2000). Trompenaars developed the below models: 2.1.6.1 Universalism versus Particularism This can be viewed as authority versus consultation. In authority the one who has authority gives instructions and makes decision without the involvement of others whereas in consultation other peoples views are taken into consideration when making decisions. 2.1.6.2 Individualism versus Communicationism Where there is balance between individuals and groups needs. 2.1.6.3 Specific versus Diffuse Relationships Here the business is done on an abstract relationship (contract) or on good personal relationship in order to bring in liking and trust. 2.1.6.4 Neutral versus Affective Communication Styles In this dimension people hide and hold on to their emotions or they show them up in which case they expect some emotional response. 2.1.6.5 Time Orientation Monochromic culture focuses more on performing the task promptly meeting the original plan and prefers to do one task at a time. Polychronic culture tends to e multi-tasking, doing different things at the same time, and emphasis is more on relationship than on tasks. 2.1.7 Halls Cultural Models Hall (1976, 1983) developed the three cultural dimensions in which he describe how people behave. Following are his Cultural Models: 2.1.7.1 Context High Context People are helped by many contextual elements to understand the rules and it is a problem for those who do not understand unwritten rules. Low Context More explanation on rules is done as things are not taken for granted and therefore there is less chance of misunderstanding. 2.1.7.2 Time Monochronic Time is where one thing is done at a time and the concern is achieving the task on schedule. Polychronic Time is where several things are done at the same time (multi-tasking) and here the concern is on relationship and not schedule. 2.1.7.3 Space High Territorial Some people have greater concern for ownership and try to mark their territorial boundaries whether at home, parking space and even in shared offices. Low Territorial People here are not much concerned with ownership of space and for them it less important Hofstede, Trompenaars and Hall did extensive research that enabled them to conduct rankings on countries cultural differences. Hofstede conducted his research on 50 countries whilst Trompenaars conducted his on between 19 and 52 countries though with fewer rankings. Although it does not clearly show whether Hall did any rankings but he did a comparison of cultural dimensions among the French, Americans and Germans. 2.1.8 Tswana Culture Households in the Tswana polities usually take the form of three residential sites: one household in the village, one at agricultural holdings outside the village but not very far from the village (where ploughing takes place) and the last a cattlepost (with kraals for keeping livestock owned by the family). †¢ Power Distance: Tswana tribes greatly respect their elders which is shown especially when the younger ones greet the elders. In Botswana greetings are used to judge somebodys behaviour and greetings are conducted in a certain manner. When greeting an elder, a younger has to stop a bit to show respect and if the younger person is a male wearing a hat, he has to take it off to show respect to the elder. A man also has to take off his hat when getting inside the house as a custom unless the man is a widower. Each Tswana tribe or ethnic group has a Chief (Kgosi) who is helped by paternal uncles and Headmen. The paternal uncles are by virtue of close relationship to the Chief advisors as they are considered to have the royal blood. Kgosis traditional court is called Kgotla, and it is the main customary court within the village where disputes or misunderstandings that could not be solved by Headmen are solved. The Chiefs Kgotla also acts as the Traditional Court of Appeal within th e village, where people who are not satisfied with the Headmens rulings can appeal. Chieftainship is inherited, so for a person to be a chief he/she has to be born from the royal family and not somebody chosen. Most of the Tswana people are Christians as Christianity was brought in Botswana as early as 1845 by a Scotsman named Dr. David Livingstone. The first Christian to be baptized by Dr Livingstone was Chief Sechele of the Bakwena and this was a good sign towards improvement in peoples way of living. For a chief to be a Christian it was easier to convince other chiefs and the people to become Christians. Christianity also contributed a lot to Tswana culture as it reduced the bureaucratic principles where only one person would make decisions for the whole family or tribe and nowadays consultation is the norm. †¢ Individualism versus Collectivism: Collectivism is the norm with the Tswana Culture where somebody has to take care of his/her family and also the extended family like uncles, grandparents, aunts, nephews and nieces. In the olden days class differentiation was very low and mostly invisible because traditionally those who had more cattle would help those who had none by distributing the cattle to those households for management. This helped the families because they would use the cattle to plough with and user their milk to feed their own family. This management of cattle also resulted in people being paid by one cow every six months or every year depending on the agreement between the owner of the cattle and the person taking care of the cattle. However, some people do not want to take the responsibilities of extended families and that is why there are organisations like SOS and other orphanage organisations to take care of orphans and also the government is giving out food r ations on monthly basis to orphans, elderly people and families considered to be very poor. †¢ Masculinity versus femininity: In the traditional Tswana setup masculinity is the norm, roles are distinguished according to gender, and this is clearly visible in traditional ceremonies where men are the only ones to sit on chairs and women sit on mats and also that in meetings men are to speak first and women are to confirm what the men have said. Men were considered heads of the families and therefore their decisions were final and unquestionable. But since the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action at the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995 (United Nations World-Wide Web page 1995) and the government of Botswanas emphasis on equality, some jobs/tasks which were considered to be for males only are now considered unisex. At present there are some women chiefs in some Tswana tribes which traditionally the chieftainship was considered to be for men, even if the chief would die only having daughters that meant chieftainship would be given to one of the partenal uncle s or his elder son. By this the chiefs family would have lost the chieftainship inheritance. †¢ Uncertainty avoidance: Tswana ethnic group used to believe in ancestors and most of them liked to consult traditional healers for different illnesses and protection against evil spirits. Since the introduction of Christian religion through Dr David Livingstone in 1843, most people no longer believe in traditional healing. The staple food for Tswana is sorghum or corn meal porridge which is made thinner for breakfast and thicker for lunch and supper eaten with some relish which may be chicken, meat from goat, sheep or cattle (sometimes pounded), caterpillar known as phane and various wild game and vegetables. But these cultures of food have now shifted a bit but are more common in ceremonial occasions like weddings and funerals and also westernised foods are prepared like coleslaw, pumpkin, squash, rice, etc. †¢ Long-term versus Short: Tswana culture used to allow children to go to school only to learn how to read and write. Most female teenagers were taken out of school to go and be married to elderly men as an arranged marriage between the parents without the agreement of the female teenager, but now people find their own partners and marry when they feel they are ready and not pushed. 2.1.9 Kalanga Culture Kalanga tribe is found in the north eastern part of Botswana and some in Zimbabwe, only separated by the border. The Kalanga tribe in Botswana, who are still withholding their culture, are mostly found in different villages within the north east side of Botswana. The Kalanga Language was taught in primary schools until 1972, six years after Botswana gained its independence from the British, and now the Kalanga tribe believe that since the discontinued teaching of Kalanga Language in primary schools their culture has been jeopardised. The staple food for Kalanga is sorghum or corn meal porridge which is always made thick and taken with relish. The relish is comprised of meat (sometimes pounded), caterpillar known as phane and various wild game and vegetables. But these cultures of food have now shifted a bit but are more common in ceremonial occasions like weddings and funerals and also westernised foods are prepared like coleslaw, pumpkin, rice, squash etc. Power Distance: The Kalanga, like the Tswana, have chiefs who look after the tribe. Their ancestral belief is very high even if they still do practise Christianity. This is shown in their annual Dombosaha ceremonies and also in their prayers for rain. Their prayers are conducted at the hill call Domboshaba, where they believe their ancestral god Ngwale is. The word Domboshaba means Red Hill Dombo means hill and shaba means red. Bakalaka treat Domboshaba like the Islam treat Mecca, this means Domboshaba is a holly place for Bakalaka. They believe the ancestors are always watching over the living and if the ancestors become upset they are able to send sickness to the living as a sign of displeasure. According to the Kalanga tribe the spirits displeasure is revealed through illnesses, droughts and other calamities and can be appeased only through worship to Ngwale. Individualism versus Collectivism: The Kalanga tribes are still strictly using collectivism as they look after each other or their extended families. Individualism is avoided as their belief is no man is an island. They emphasise on community care which shows collectivism dimension. Uncertainty avoidance: The Kalanga tribes believe in worshipping their ancestral god called Ngwale and they also believe in pleasing Ngwale to avoid punishment. Their belief is that Ngwale is always looking at them and if he is not happy with them, he will punish them by bringing incurable diseases, droughts and other disasters. Due to these beliefs the Kalanga tribe do not want to anger Ngwale in order to avoid the situations of calamities. They also believe in consulting Ngwale go guide them or help them solve some problems for which they have no control of like when there is not enough rain durin

Flourishing in Video Games: The Improvements of Child Development throu

This paper defines human flourishing as living a life of optimal functioning based upon positive productivity. What productivity is, in this sense, is undefined; leading myself to gleam from personal experience what society purports it to be. Common answers involve actions, such as working and social interaction. Self-centered hobbies, such as video games, are often left out, viewed as promoting little towards productivity and its assumed benefits. This produces tension through what is commonly considered to be positively productive towards flourishing, and a growing medium, with children especially, which proposes enjoyment through technological solitude. From this, I wonder if optimal functioning is only attainable through traditional methods of productivity as compared to the passivity gaming is perceived to promote. This paper aims to examine these claims closely in adolescents, for if a large majority turns towards video games as an extracurricular, I write it can be concluded t hat there is an aspect increasing their happiness. The truth of this shall be evaluated in this paper, lending to the larger topic of what promotes psychological happiness and optimal human functioning. Knowledge around the effects of video games produces agreement that games do not always hinder, providing benefits in developmental child growth at some points. Shelley L. Gable and Jonathan Haidt state a need to focus on psychological aspects providing benefits to mental health rather than what detracts (105-107), which I relate to popular views of most games as an unhealthy medium. Cheryl K. Olson fulfills this need, drawing upon research to examine what influences children to play video games, and its positive effects, such as creating self-developme... ...d Consequences. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2006. 363-378. Web. 10 March 2014. Fredrickson, Barbara L. and Michael F. Losada. "Positive Affect and the Complex Dynamics of Human Flourishing." American Psychologist 60.7 (2005): 678-686. Web. 10 Jan. 2014. Gable, Shelley L. and Jonathan Haidt. "What (and Why) Is Positive Psychology?" Review of General Psychology 9.2 (2006): 103-110. Web. 10 Jan. 2014. Li, DongDong, Albert Liau and Angeline Khoo. "Examining the Influence of Actual-Ideal Self-Discrepancies, Depression, and Escapism, on Pathological Gaming Among Massively Multiplayer Online Adolescent Gamers." Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 14.9 (2011): 535-539. Web. 13 Feb. 2014. Olson, Cheryl K. "Children’s Motivations for Video Game Play in the Context of Normal Development ." Review of General Psychology 14.2 (2010): 180-187. 10 March 2014.

History of the DIA :: essays research papers fc

History of the Defense Intelligence Agency   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the years following World War II, there were many turf battles fought between the intelligence agencies of the United States. The Central Intelligence Agency, which was created in 1947 with the passing of the National Security Act, won the initial battles. This agency had won both legislative status and budget authority and was to make recommendations for coordinating intelligence activities; and to correlate, evaluate, and disseminate intelligence (Laqueur, 17). The act was vague however, and the new agency quickly moved to the role of producer of intelligence and quickly grew in size(Laqueur, 17).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By 1953, while headed by Allen Dulles, the CIA reached its height of influence inside Washington. Dulles showed little interest in intelligence coordination, but was very close with President Eisenhower and with his brother, Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, he had great personal influence within the administration (Laqueur, 18).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Unfortunately, Dulles’s final years as Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) were strife with controversy. Overly pessimistic intelligence estimates gave way to controversy concerning the missile gap between the USSR and America. Another intelligence disaster was the Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba. This operation further damaged the CIA’s reputation and led to Dulles’s dismissal as DCI (Laqueur, 18). These intelligence failures caused President Eisenhower to be dissatisfied with the intelligence he was receiving from the community. A new solution was needed and Eisenhower moved to create a Joint Study Group to â€Å"determine better ways of effectively organizing the nation’s military intelligence activities† (Raman).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This group recommended the creation of a single source to manage and coordinate all intelligence expenditure, production, analysis, assessment and dissemination functions within the Department of Defense (DOD). This agency would be responsible to the Secretary of Defense, and meet the intelligence needs of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) and military units fielded worldwide (Raman).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Eisenhower’s term as President ended before the group’s recommendations could be implemented, however the banner was carried by the next administration. Robert McNamara, Secretary of Defense under President John F. Kennedy, accepted the group’s recommendation and created the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) (DNSA). McNamara had many reasons for accepting the groups recommendations. First among them was the differing assessments of the missile gap by each of the services intelligence agencies. Another reason was McNamara’s cost-conscious attitude. He wanted to merge the intelligence directorates of the different services to avoid a multiplicity of intelligence agencies in the Pentagon (Raman).

Disease Caused by Environmental Exposure Essay

Environmental Diseases In epidemiology, environmental disease is disease caused by environmental factors that are not transmitted genetically or by infection. Apart from the true monogenic genetic disorders, environmental diseases may determine the development of disease in those genetically predisposed to a particular condition. Stress, physical and mental abuse, diet, exposure to toxins, pathogens, radiation, and chemicals found in almost all personal care products and household cleaners are possible causes of a large segment of non-hereditary disease. If a disease process is concluded to be the result of a combination of genetic and environmental factor influences, its etiological origin can be referred to as having a multifactorial pattern. There are many different types of environmental disease including: * Lifestyle disease such as cardiovascular disease, diseases caused by substance abuse such as alcoholism, and smoking-related disease * Disease caused by physical factors in the environment, such as skin cancer caused by excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation in sunlight * Disease caused by exposure to chemicals in the environment such as toxic metals * These diseases can also be mutated and can thrive in the unnatural environment through rubbish that isn’t discarded and no sewerage systems. These factors can hurt a nation or an individual quite easily. ————————————————- Categories of environmental disease * First, there are those caused by the ancient metals: lead and mercury. * Then there are those caused by the other metals: arsenic, phosphorus, and zinc. * The newer metals can also cause environmental disease: beryllium, cadmium, chromium, manganese, nickel, cobalt, osmium, platinum, selenium, tellurium, thallium, uranium, and vanadium. * Additionally, there are environmental diseases caused by the aromatic carbon compounds including : benzene, hexachlorocyclohexane, toluene diisocyanate, phenol, pentachlorophenol,quinone and hydroquinone. Also included are the aromatic nitro-, amino-, and pyridilium-deratives: nitrobenzene, dinitrobenzene, trinitrotoluene, paramethylaminophenol sulfate (Metol), dinitro-ortho-cresol, aniline,trinitrophenylmethylnitramine (tetryl), hexanitrodiphenylamine (aurantia), phenylenediamine[disambiguation needed], and parquet. The aliphatic carbon compounds can also cause environmental disease. Included in these are methanol, nitroglycerine, nitrocellulose, dimethylnitrosamine, and the halogenated hydrocarbons: methyl, methyl bromide, trichloroethylene, carbon tetrachloride, and the chlorinated naphthalene. Also included are glycols: ethylene chlorohydrins and diethylene dioxide as well as carbon, acrylonitrile, acryl amide, and vinyl chloride. * Other important chemical causes of environmental diseases are the noxious gases which can be categorized as: Simple asphyxiates, chemical asphyxiates, and irritant gases. The simple asphixiants are nitrogen, methane, and carbon dioxide. The chemical asphyxiates are carbon monoxide, sulfuretted hydrogen and hydrogen cyanide. The irritant gases are sulfur dioxide, ammonia, nitrogen dioxide, chlorine, phosgene, and fluorine and its compounds, which include luroine and hydrofluoric acid, fluorspar, fluorapatite, cryolite, and organic fluorine compounds. While many infectious diseases are caused by human-to-human transmission, others are caused by microorganisms that exist in the outside environment. Scientists from a variety of fields, including medicine and the environment, must work together to address the challenges posed by these environmental pathogens, according to a new report, From Outside to Inside: Environmental Microorganisms as Human Pathogens, released today by the American Academy of Microbiology. â€Å"The key difference between environmental pathogens and other human pathogens is their ability to survive and thrive outside the host. Their widespread occurrence in the environment makes them difficult to monitor and control,† says Gerard Cangelosi of theSeattle Biomedical Research Institute at the University of Washington, one of the authors of the report. â€Å"The fields of medical and environmental microbiology need to be better integrated to stimulate the type of work that is required to combat environmenta l pathogens effectively, and the development and improvement of surveillance and reporting strategies should be a top priority.† Environmental pathogens are defined as microorganisms that normally spend a substantial part of their lifecycle outside human hosts, but when introduced to humans cause disease with measurable frequency. They are carried in the water, soil, air, food and other parts of the environment and can affect almost every individual on the planet. Some examples of environmental pathogens include Legionella pneumophila (the cause of Legionnaires disease, often found in air conditioning systems), West Nile virus, and Cryptosporidium parvum (a parasite that can be found in food, drinking water and recreational waters). In addition to better integration of medical and environmental research, the report recommends more effective monitoring of pathogens in the environment to allow researchers to better understand the incidence and persistence of pathogens in areas that are considered to be at risk for harboring these organisms. Multidisciplinary research must also be fostered to better predict how changes in the environment may affect the frequency of environmental diseases. â€Å"These threats to human health can only be assessed in a comprehensive multidisciplinary context in which ecology, epidemiology, and emerging areas in environmental engineering and microbiology are integrated. This combined approach can yield immediate and long-term health benefits by mitigating established environmental risks, identifying risky situations for disease emerging and finding the causes of diseases of unknown etiology,† says Cangelosi. The report is the result of a colloquium convened by the Academy in February 2004 to discuss environmental pathogens and the current state of research on these organisms. Scientists with expertise in infectious diseases, food microbiology, bacteriology, molecular, microbial ecology, pathogenic mycology and other areas in the microbiological sciences participated. Participants considered the knowledge gaps related to the incidence and epidemiology of environmental infectious diseases, dynamics of human pathogens in the environment, ways to alleviate environmental infectious diseases, research needs in the field and education and communication issues. ————————————————- Causes of Environmental diseases Environmental diseases are caused by chemical agents, radiation, and physical hazards. The effects of exposure, in both natural and work settings, are greatly influenced by the exposure routes: primarily air pollution and water pollution, contaminated food, and direct contact with toxins. Synergistic affects—two or more toxic exposures acting together—are also important, as illustrated by the greatly increased risk of lung cancer in asbestos workers who smoke cigarettes. The potential interaction of multiple hazardous chemicals at toxic waste dumps poses a current public health problem that is of unknown dimensions. Industrial society has introduced or increased human exposure to thousands of chemicals in the environment. Examples are inorganic materials such as lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, and asbestos, and organic substances such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), vinyl chloride, and the pesticide DDT. Of particular concern is the delayed potential for these chemicals to produce cancer, as in the cases of lung cancer and mesothelioma caused by asbestos, liver cancer caused by vinyl chloride, and leukemia caused by benzene. Minamata disease, caused by food contaminated with mercury, and Yusho disease, from food contaminated with chlorinated furans, are examples of acute toxic illnesses occurring in nonoccupational settings. The full toxic potential of most environmental chemicals has not been completely tested. The extent and frequency of an illness are related to the dose of toxin, in degrees depending on the toxin. For chronic or delayed effects such as cancer or adverse reproductive effects, no â€Å"safe† dose threshold may exist below which disease is not produced.